The Value of Higher Education

Ruben Zamudio English 1 Section 1739 Dr. Garnica Assignment 1 The Value of a Higher Education As the predecessor for success in America since the 1970s, college is questioned more and more this generation whether its stature is essential for socioeconomic mobility. What once was seen as the eroding force of class divisions has sadly become the reason for its fortification. This eroding force does however give a pleasant image of a better life with a higher earning career at hand.The instability of the nation’s economy has made it difficult for students of low-income class to get access to colleges and universities and surpass the invisible barriers that hold them back from achieving the American dream every citizen has. One major drawback for access to higher education can be focused directly on the nation. Since the tragic incident of 9/11, our nation’s spending towards defense has dramatically increased. What does that mean? Not enough dollars are going towards what m atters most: education.The Bush’s administration’s 2007 budget proposed the largest cut to federal education funding since the twenty-six years of existence for the Education Department—a loss of $2. 1 billion. This cut meant that schools and colleges throughout the nation had to compete more than ever for proper funding from the government, both at the state and federal level. As resources are being stripped from schools, struggling students will only continue to struggle, while students with money and resources continue to add on to the legacy that has preceded them.This information does not include another economic sector that has made it difficult for students to access higher education, the ever-growing cost of college tuition. â€Å"College tuition has increased 66% beyond inflation within the last ten years, and 26% at private institutions†. Higher education was looked at to further the knowledge of our nation’s citizens, to expand and bette r what we had, but due to the difficulty of accessing it, all we continue to do is increase the gap of class stratification.Gary Rhoades of the Center of the Future of Higher Education stated, â€Å"Our current policy path, of continued cuts in state support and continued increases in tuition will only increase the stratification in the future†. This is an adverse trend, as our nation is in dire demand for more educated graduates and workers, not fewer. Yet, policymakers continue to steer their focus away from increasing access to schools, and making it that much harder for students who struggle already. In the world we live in today, money is the motive and the drive.Elementary and post secondary schools with a high property tax are two linked reasons for the inequality of education. Schools rely heavenly on property tax revenue using as much as half for funding. A report done by Daphne A. Kenyon, a member at the Lincoln Institute, displayed the correlation of property tax a nd school funding of seven states: California, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Texas, Ohio, New Jersey, and Michigan, with â€Å"Massachusetts ranks the highest and California the lowest, according to the respective property tax relief and school funding principles presented in the reports. This report associates itself with the most educated states in the country, with Massachusetts being one of the most educated and California being one the lowest. Giving you an idea how this source of revenue actually helps the students in the long run, getting a higher quality of education, as schools are able to buy more materials for the classrooms, and pay for workshops which could improve teachers. Educational value depends on the educational spending in students and institutions, as does the quality.This inequality for students enforces class stratification, as students who receive better quality of teaching throughout their academic career, will be better prepared for colleges and universit ies and the workforce ahead. As these students leave a form of legacy behind them in their alma mater, access for their children will be easier, as children with parents who’ve attended college are more likely to go than those with parents who have not. Unfortunately for those who receive poor quality education, their mobility will be limited than what it should be, ignoring general income as a factor.Students with lower income have always trailed behind their affluent colleagues in school performance, not saying that they cannot advance, but the way the system is being operated against them. Universities have grown selective in their admission process, aiming towards students with higher incomes, as they contribute and pay more than those with lower income. A trend that has continued to grow and debated about is the acceptance of out-of-states students over in-states students.Populated states with tight higher education budgets have grown to rely on out-of-state students due to their higher tuition payments to help sustain the schools. Another issue that universities and institutions present is the administration blight. A 2010 study has shown that administrators have grown 39% per 100 students compared to professors, researchers, and other staff members, who have only grown 18% per 100 students. Schools need more professors and researchers, not administrators, who make an average of $390,000 a year.This steers universities’ mission away from providing a proper education and more and giving those in higher power more power. Full time professors and researchers are being replaced, and do not have time to perform research to further the advancement of knowledge. Despite the numbers flown around everywhere, what you earn from a college degree is in fact beneficial to a person. Those with a post secondary education will genuinely earn a bout 64% more than someone with just a high school degree or a drop out ($1053 vs. 638 earned a month). The earnin g gap in today’s society has been the highest since 1915, and in today’s economy, you need to have that stable income to be ready for whatever policies and laws and raises in tax rates that the country might throw at you. So attending college will definitely have it’s advantage, most of the times. Although attaining and completing your post secondary education, the work field will not always guarantee you a job solely due to a degree.Post secondary education has taken it share of hits from legislators and policymakers, but this should not affect the access for students who are working hard to achieve a better future for themselves and potential families to come. Despite, the intense competition that has grown, post secondary is essential in the today’s world and a little competition is always healthy. Our state and national government, as well as schools and parents have to understand the importance of post secondary education for our future generations, and must find a way to restructure our budgets to help students succeed as much as possible.

Who Wrote 2 Peter

Who Wrote Second Peter An Explanation Michael S. Summy LUO 1185240 NBST 679-01 Dr. Leo Percer November 13, 2012 Table of Contents I. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2 II. History of the Authorship of Peter†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2-5 III. Arguments for Petrine Authorship of 2 Peter†¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6-10 IV. Arguments Against Petrine Authorship of 2 Peter†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦. 10-15 V. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 15-16 VI. Personal Conclusion†¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 16 VII.Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 17 INTRODUCTION Debates over the authorship of various books in the Bible are common among Biblical scholars. Some of these debates are legitimate as the book of the Bible lacks a claim of authorship, while others appear to be ridiculous as the claims within the Scripture appear to settle the issue. Some books, such as 2 Peter fall into the category of books that claim a certain authorship, but sufficient arguments exist that can cast some doubt as to the truth of the legitimate writer.The theory of the authorship of 2 Peter is a question that has caused a great deal of debate and controversy within the church. The purpose of this pape r is not to defend the theory that Peter wrote this epistle. An investigation of various arguments on the subject will be used to debate both the tradition view of Peter as the author and the more liberal view that someone other than Peter is responsible for writing the epistle. This is not a new debate, but rather an ongoing controversy that has existed since the second century.The arguments for both sides seem similar at times, and both use valid evidence to support their conclusions. This paper will show how a logical conclusion can be drawn that the Apostle Peter was the author of second epistle of Peter. HISTORY OF THE AUTHORSHIP OF 2 PETER The answer to the question of authorship of 2 Peter seems as if it should straightforward as the book claims within the first few words to have been written by the apostle Peter. Surprisingly this question has existed since the days of the early church and even to this day clarity is still being sought. Although 2 Peter was not as widely kno wn and recognized in the early church as 1 Peter, some may have used and accepted it as authoritative as early as the second century and perhaps even in the latter part of the first century (1 Clement [AD 95] may allude to it). † This early canonical acceptance did not end the debate. The first time the book was credited to Peter was around the beginning of the third century in the time of Origen. â€Å"Even he cast some doubt as to the church’s ability to ascribe the book to Peter, but Origen did not completely deny it either. Origen’s comments in his Expositions on the Gospel according to John, provided evidence that some in his day doubted the Petrine authorship of 2 Peter. He stated, â€Å"And Peter, on whom the church of Christ is built, against which the gates of Hades shall not prevail, has left one acknowledged epistle, and, it may be, a second also, for it is doubted. † Origen also placed doubt on Petrine authorship by making the statement that t he existence of the book was not known until his own time, which caused serious problems. Eusebius (265–340) placed it among the questioned books, though he admits that most accept it as from Peter. After Eusebius’s time, it seems to have been quite generally accepted as canonical. † After the time of Eusebius, the debate over the second epistle continued on, but eventually the book as accepted in the New Testament Canon by Clement. The controversy over Peter’s authorship grew silent for many years, but never completely disappeared. â€Å"In recent centuries, however, its genuineness has been challenged by a considerable number of interpreters. The only fact that seems to be certain in the debate is that the authorship of 2 Peter will never be completely satisfied. Many in the early church were quick to classify 2 Peter as a letter written by the Apostle Paul. â€Å"Why would the author of 2 Peter refer to Paul’s letters, which did not circulate a s a group until about 95 AD? † The early church leaders also saw the fact that the author of 2 Peter referred to himself many times within 2 Peter. They further recognized that the author of 2 Peter identified himself twice as any times as did the author of 1Peter.In 2 Peter the author goes on to compare â€Å"all the letters of Paul with the writings mentioned previously, further suggesting that the recipients do not posses the entire Pauline corpus. † Although some in the early church felt that 2 Peter was written by Paul, this belief never gained a great deal of traction and eventually was dismissed by church leaders. A major factor in the history of the authorship 2 Peter was the date of the death of the apostle Peter. Most conservative thinkers would date the death of Peter to the time of Nero and would place the date around 66 AD.This timing would allow for Peter to be the writer of this book and answers most of the objections made by the more liberal minded schol ars. Those who ascribe to a later death for Peter, used this evidence to support the idea that someone other than the Apostle wrote this book. Most church leaders agreed on the timing of the death of Peter and since it was such a public event there is little doubt that he died in the middle 60’s. The early church used this date and the writing within the book itself to create a strong argument for Peter being the author.The early church fathers had many important decisions to make as leaders of the followers of Christ and one of the most important ones was which writings to accept into the Biblical Canon. Of all of the books of the New Testament 2 Peter was one of the most debated and argued over. â€Å"The first direct quotation of 2 Peter is in 1 Clement, a letter written around the end of the first century. Theide says that once the quotations started appearing, the list is longas to the number of times 2 Peter was referenced. Another Church Father Irenaeus, also appeared to take a part of 2 Peter or allude to it, but he choose not to mention this book by name. Not even the book of Revelation received as much scrutiny as 2 Peter. The hesitancy of the early church to accept 2 Peter was due in part to that fact of Peter’s name was being used in many Gnostic writings. At least three apocryphal writings were being circulated at the same time as 1 and 2 Peter. Another difficulty was both Peter and Jude alluded to Enoch, which quickly became known as an apocryphal book.It is clear that in the Fourth Century, at the Councils of Hippo, 2 Peter was recognized as being part of the Biblical Canon. â€Å"At this same counsel other books such as I Clement and the Epistle of Barnabas were rejected mainly on the grounds that they lacked a claim of authorship by someone who was considered an apostle. † A scholar of church history during this time wrote this synopsis of the feelings of the believers towards Peter’s second epistle. He wrote, â₠¬Å"Quite probably the churches which originally received it, knowing it not to be Peter’s own work, would not have granted it the same status in their own use as they did, e. . , to the Pauline letter. . . . Whatever the reasons for its lack of wide use in the second century, this seems to have contributed to its very slow progress toward general acceptance into the canon. † As with most historical data, little is known of the status of this epistle during the next 1000 years. As the church entered the period of the Reformation many of the standards of the church were called into question including the Biblical Canon. â€Å"2 Peter was regarded as second-class Scripture by Luther, rejected by Erasmus, and regarded with hesitancy by Calvin. The fact that 2 Peter had several claims of authorship by the Apostle Peter within its text allowed it to be spared and recognized as part of the inspired Word of God. ARGUMENTS FOR PETRINE AUTHORSHIP OF SECOND PETER The book of 2 Pe ter begins with this verse, â€Å"Simon Peter, a bond servant and apostle of Jesus Christ, to those who have received a faith of the same kind as ours, by the righteousness of our God and Savior Jesus Christ. † This statement seems to make clear the claim that Peter wrote this letter would also seem to leave little room for doubt.Few other books with such a claim have been disputed, but the critics are quick to ignore this initial claim by Peter and scrutinize the letter. This is not the only place in the letter that Petrine authorship is proclaimed and details of the life of the Apostle support this assumption. 2 Peter 1:16 speaks of the author as a man who is facing or is near to his death. This allusion would certainly support the idea of Peter as the writer, because it was believed Peter knew he would be martyred and wanted to give his followers one final word of encouragement.Further in the letter in 2 Peter 2:16-18, the author shared a retelling of the Transfiguration o f Christ. In the gospel of Matthew, Peter is one of only three men who accompanied Jesus at this event. The retelling of the details of this amazing display could only be completed by Peter, James, or John. One final statement from with the book itself can be found in chapter three. 2 Peter 3:1 made a clear references to a prior letter, which should be assumed as being 1 Peter. There is little comparable material in the two epistles, but this reference to the first epistle seems to lead to the conclusion that they were written by the same person. On the one hand it is argued on this fact the 1 and 2 Peter must have two different authors, but on the other hand it seems strange that a pseudo-writer would not use any content from the prior book he was attempting to imitate. † The evidence within the book itself would seem to clearly suggest that Peter was the author. The reception of the early church leaders of 2 Peter or the lack thereof can be seen as a contradictory. On one ha nd the book of 2 Peter is mentioned very little in the ancient writings of the church leaders. On the contrary, those same leaders did not lump the book of 2 Peter into the category of the rejected books.Few if any of these men make a clear statement of denial of Peter as the author, but many did cast doubts about it. Some of the earliest remaining documents that refer to 2 Peter, have shown evidence that a debate over its authorship was present in the church. â€Å"One such document written by Origen in the third century is considered to be the first to explicitly mention 2 Peter by name. † This mention by Origen may be the first documented reference to 2 Peter, but many scholars believe there are other writings made by the early church fathers which made allusions to the book.Another leader, Jerome, mentioned doubts surrounding the authenticity of 2 Peter, but never concluded that Peter did not write this letter. A strong fact to support the Petrine authorship is the overwh elming majority the church fathers do not argue against the epistle. â€Å"2 Peter was never rejected as suspicious nor was it attributed to anyone other than Peter. In support for Petrine authorship, 2 Peter enjoys wide inclusion in what is arguably the strongest early Papyrus, which was thought to be as early as the 3rd Century. Due to the support by the church fathers and the lack of opposition to the book, 2 Peter is believed to have unofficially gained canonization as early as the mid-second Century. Critics of Petrine authorship are quick to point out differences in the styles of the two books of Peter. They feel that the two epistles could not possibly have been written by the same man. Upon examination of the two books, there are clear differences between the two letters. â€Å"The vocabulary of 1 Peter has only 153 words in common with 2 Peter while 543 are unique to 1 Peter and 399 unique to 2 Peter. The book of 2 Peter also has far fewer participles than does first Pete r and the ones in 2 Peter are often repeated. â€Å"One common example given by critics is the use of apokaluyi† in 1 Peter and parousiva in 2 Peter to refer to the Lord’s coming. † This is not a practice that is unique to these two letters. Many of the works of Paul contain unique language to the particular letter in which it was used. Paul also choose the same terms as Peter used for the Second Coming and selected these words when writing 1 Corinthians and 2 Thessalonians.The problem with the argument for similarity between the two epistles seems to be that the critics almost expect Peter’s second epistle to be simply a rehash of the same material as was seen in the first. There is an unreasonable demand for vocabulary and themes that match the first work, but the critics seem to forget the reasons behind the writing of each letter. Each letter was written to address a different set of circumstances and there was a unique purpose to each epistle. The cri tics can point to stylistic differences in the books, but this lack of similarity can be explained.The more liberal leaning thinkers also point to the differences in the theology and doctrinal themes of the books as reason to Petrine authorship. The purpose of 1 Peter can be summed up as a challenge to the believers to endure suffering and live holy lives. 2 Peter on the other hand seems to contain mostly strong warnings against the false teachers of the day and also a final message to the believers before the death of Peter. This criticism seems to ignore the fact that Peter felt the need to address issues that were pressing at the time of his writing.Differences should be expected if the author is dealing with different problems, as was the case with Peter. The assumption that an author must deal with the same topics in both letters is unrealistic and uncommon. Most if not all of Paul’s letters deal with issues that were unique to the area to which Paul sent the letter. It can be concluded that Peter deserves the same consideration as Paul in this matter. Although there are many differences between the two letters of Peter many similarities also exist etween them. The critics point to an excessive amount of repetitive word in 2 Peter, but 1 Peter can also be characterized by repetition of words. Bigg says, â€Å"The habit of verbal repetition is therefore quite as strongly marked in the First Epistle as the Second. There are similarities of thought and no document in the New Testament is so like 1 Peter as 2 Peter. † Upon review of both letters, there does seem to be enough commonality between the two books of Peter to conclude that the same man wrote both books.Since there is little evidence to argue against Apostle Peter as the author the first book of Peter, the conclusion can be reached that he also wrote the second. One of the more common practices among the writers of the New Testament was to have a scribe or someone who would write their words for him. Longenecker states in his work, â€Å"The Greek papyri, therefore, indicate quite clearly that an amanuensis was frequently, if not commonly, employed in the writing of personal letters during the time approximating the composition of the NT epistles. † Sometimes this was done to help the writer use better Greek and make his work more understandable.Men like Peter, who were not educated in the same manner as the upper class, would need assistance in making their writing more professional and acceptable to the educated class. â€Å"One plausible explanation for the differences between 1 Peter and 2 Peter is that Peter used an amanuensis to do the actual writing of 1 Peter with Peter checking and approving the final product. † This seems to be the clear method in which the first epistle of Peter was written. 1 Peter 5:12 says, â€Å"Through Silvanus, our faithful brother (for so I regard him), I have written to you briefly, exhorting and testifying that this is the true grace of God.Stand firm in it! † A logical conclusion to explain the differences between the two letter of Peter is that he wrote 2 Peter himself and he had someone write his words for him in his first letter. Peter received the inspiration for both letters from the Holy Spirit, but the methods of recording each of the books were unique. The best argument for Peter being the author of the second epistle is the fact that the letter was eventually accepted as into the New Testament Canon.One of the main reasons for its acceptance would have to be the assumption that the book was written by a man of the standing in the church like the Apostle Peter. â€Å"Although it could be pseudonymous letters like â€Å"The Gospel of Peter†, â€Å"The Apocalypses of Peter†, â€Å"The letter of Peter to James†, none of these works was accepted into the canon because they hadn’t God’s inspiration. † Second Peter had gained acceptance in to the Canon by the time of Cyril of Jerusalem. The issue of its canonicity was settled by the acceptance of the church leaders such as Cyril, Athanasius, Augustine, and Jerome.These church leaders, who were not easily swayed to allow books into the Canon, acknowledged 2 Peter to be Scripture because of the overwhelming internal and external evidence. ARGUMENTS AGAINST PETER AS AUTHOR OF SECOND PETER Although there seems to be an abundance of evidence to support the idea that Peter wrote the second epistle of Peter, many Christian scholars and thinkers disagree with this assumption. The amount of evidence to disprove Petrine authorship seems to be as great and some would argue more that the evidence to support his authorship.Issues about the date, the style of writing, the lack of historical claims, the brevity of the book, the language used by the author, and the similarities to Jude are all cited as reasons to discount the possibility of the disciple known as Simon Peter being the writer. At one point in the history of the church, the leading school of thought was that 2 Peter was an example of pseudepigraphal literature and therefore was not the work of the Apostle. There is little doubt that a definitive answer as to the authorship of this book will not be obtained until all questions are answered by God in eternity.The book of 2 Peter was and is still considered by many to be pseudepigraphal in nature and was not written by Peter. Ksemann states that â€Å"2 Peter is perhaps the most dubious writing in the New Testament. † Others went as far as to conclude that virtually no one believes that 2 Peter was written by the disciple and friend of Christ named Peter. These men would argue instead that someone else wrote the letter and used the name of Peter to give legitimacy to it. Pseudonymous works are defined as â€Å"the practice of writing a literary work under the pretence that someone else, usually someone more famous, wrote it. 2 Peter is one of only a few books that were accused of being pseudonymous that survived the scrutiny of the canonical counsels and eventually it was accepted by the church fathers. The looming questions over the authorship of 2 Peter has led to the conclusion by most critical scholars that the book needs to be labeled as pseudepigraphal literature. The issues come from those who are not willing to accept the first verse of 2 Peter and the other internal evidence as sufficient for proving that Peter was the author.These scholars, feel the evidence to support Petrine authorship is weak and should not be accepted without questions and a thorough examination. One major issue is that the features of the letter seem to give evidence of a time later than Peter's lifetime. In 2 Peter 3:4, the author used the phrase, â€Å"Ever since our fathers died. † This verse seems to make a reference the first generation of Christians, which would seem strange coming from Peter as he too was part of this group. Another instance is 2 Peter 3:15 which states, â€Å"Bear in mind that our Lord’s patience means salvation, just as our dear brother Paul also wrote you with the wisdom that God gave him. † The author seemed to be looking back at the letters of Paul as works already complete and established. Most of Paul’s works were not even known about until well after the death of Peter. The internal evidence in 2 Peter seems to offer as many questions about the authorship of the book as it does answers. The possibility of a pseudonymous author is high due to these facts.One of the most convincing arguments against Petrine authorship of 2 Peter is a thorough examination of the Greek of the epistle. Peter was described as a Galilean fisherman in the gospels and he and his brothers were most likely worked for a fishing business owned by his family. According to Dr. Leo Percer, â€Å"Peter was not uneducated, as he most likely attended schools that were taught by the Pharisees to help him learn the Law of Moses. He was not however educated to the extent that we would have been proficient in writing Greek. † Many scholars look to the description of Peter in the book of Acts as proof of his lack of education.Acts 4:13 states, â€Å"Now when they saw the boldness of Peter and John, and perceived that they were unlearned and ignorant men, they marveled; and they took knowledge of them that they had been with Jesus. † The Greek of 2 Peter appears to be much less formal and unstructured and it is very different from the Greek of 1 Peter. The ability to conclude that both letters were written by the same hand is very difficult to prove. The Greek of 1 Peter and the Greek of 2 Peter is quite different and contain words and phrasing that make it difficult to reconcile the differences between the two books.Two major issues result from the Greek of 2 Peter and help support the idea that Simon Peter was not the author of second Peter. The first is the si mple fact that most scholars agree that Peter did write the first book attributed to him, which makes the case against his authorship of the second. The second is the grandiose language that is used by the author. The fact remains it is unlikely that a Galilean fisherman would use the language in this book. â€Å"The author of 2 Peter seems to be pretentious and out to prove that he has a grasp of the Greek language through the use of such flowery words. Peter was looked at as the leader of the early church, which would give him no reason to feel the need to write in a way to give himself any more credibility than he already possessed. One critic made this statement â€Å"this letter betrays an artificial dialect of high-sounding words learnt from rhetoricians and books such would not fit well with both Peter’s modus operandi (of heavy reliance on written sources for his composition) and with the psychological probability of one attempting to write in a second language. The se objects do provide problems for those trying to prove Peter as the author of 2 Peter. An even more problematic argument against the authorship of Peter for this short epistle is apparent similarities between 2 Peter and Jude. The books share a common message and a common theme. It also appears that the books share at least 17 common passages and parallels to one another. One example is 2 Peter 1:12 and Jude 5. 2 Peter 1:12 says, â€Å"Therefore, I will always be ready to remind you of these things, even though you already know them, and have been established in the truth which is present with you. The parallel verse in Jude 5 says â€Å"Now I desire to remind you, though you know all things once for all that the Lord, after saving a people out of the land of Egypt, subsequently destroyed those who did not believe. † Just in these two verses alone there are seven shared words and a few common phrases. Most of the similarities in these two books occur in chapter two and thr ee of 2 Peter and can be seen throughout the one chapter of Jude. This commonality between the two letters presents problems in attempting to establish Petrine authorship.Another issue to be answered is the date of Jude and 2 Peter and the chronology of the two letters. â€Å"If Jude was written after Peter’s lifetime (as most scholars assume), then if 2 Peter uses Jude, it cannot be by Peter. † There is little evidence for a late date of Jude, but there seems to a great deal of evidence for 2 Peter having a late date. The date most scholars agree to for Jude is around 64 AD and even conservative thinkers would place the earliest date for 2 Peter at somewhere around 65 AD.This dating would lead to the possible conclusion that if Peter was written after Jude that much of 2 Peter was copied from Jude. The comparison of the books also supports the idea of 2 Peter being written at a much later date. A later date for Peter would allow for the writer of the book to use Jude as a source and would help to explain the many similarities. No matter which book was written first, there seems to be clarity that the books share from one another. A final, and maybe not as convincing, argument is that the overwhelming opinion of Biblical scholars is that Peter was not the author of this letter.One scholar writes, â€Å"the issue of authorship is already settled, at least negatively: the apostle Peter did not write this letter and that the vast bulk of NT scholars adopt this perspective without much discussion. † Other men such as Stephen Harris and Werner Kummel agree with this position and go as far as to say that â€Å"virtually no authorities defend the Petrine authorship of 2 Peter. † Even leading conservatives such as Carson and Moo would agree that there is little popular support to back Petrine authorship, but they still hold to the view that Peter wrote both books.The evangelicals and conservatives remind the liberals of the early acceptance of 2 Peter into the canon, but the liberals feel this decision was made before enough scrutiny of the book was made. â€Å"Nearly two thirds of Bible experts contend that Peter did not write 2 Peter. † CONCLUSION The evidence for or against Petrine authorship of 2 Peter is in no way strong enough settle the issue in a conclusive manner. For each point in support of Peter there is an equally convincing argument against him. This debate is not new; as it has been going on for close to 2,000 years.At times over that history, the issue seemed to be settled for Peter, but this was a short lived victory as the authorship of the book has been an ongoing issue for the church. Men from the time of Peter until now have searched for a definitive answer, but the answer has remained illusive. Each one of the arguments made by those who support Peter as the author has a counter argument against it. â€Å"The external evidence, while not proving authenticity neither disproves it, for the evidence provides twenty-two possible usages of 2 Peter. † Those who argue for Peter point to the internal evidence, and the personal allusions to the life of Peter.These illusions such as the retelling of the Transfiguration and the suffering of Christ are written by the author to establish his identity as the Apostle Peter. The other side would argue that a pseudo-author wrote in these illusions to try to establish his work as a book of an Apostle. An examination of the issues regarding the history, style, and even the doctrine of 2 Peter have been attempted to be used against Peter, but on the contrary, may be used to support it. Many of the problems the critics have with these issues can be answered by the fact that Peter likely used an amanuensis to help write his book.Those who disagree with Peter as the writer of 2 Peter would offer pseudonymity as the answer to the question of authorship. The issue with this stand has to be that â€Å"at the time of 2 Peter’s c anonization, the practice of pseudonymity was scorned and had not one example of New Testament usage, while the canonical books were only admitted after careful scrutiny of genuineness. † Since 2 Peter was admitted into the Canon, the assumption of there being a pseudo-author is answered. Point by point each argument for Petrine authorship can be disputed, but each one against his authorship can also be torn down.PERSONAL CONCLUSION After examining all of the leading arguments both for and against Peter, I have come to the conclusion that Peter did in fact write the book of 2 Peter. The issue for me isn’t style or the quality of the Greek used by the author; it is in a personal belief that the Bible is the inerrant Word of God. 2 Peter 2:1 clearly identifies Peter as the author of the epistle, and this ends the debate for me. As I examined evidence against Petrine authorship, I was always drawn back to the fact that the Bible says Peter wrote the book.As Payne says in h is book, â€Å"How can one accept the verbal, plenary inspiration—which would demand Petrine authorship at verse one—and still call 2 Peter non-canonical? † 2 Peter was accepted, even though it was under a cloud of suspicion, into the New Testament Cannon, which qualifies it as the inerrant Word of God. If I believe that the Bible is never wrong, then 2 Peter must have been written by the Apostle named Simon Peter. The question of authorship for me is answered in 10 simple words, â€Å"Simon Peter, a bond-servant and apostle of Jesus Christ. † Bibliography Green, Michael. Peter & Jude: an Introduction and Commentary. Downers Grove, IL: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2007. Green, Christopher & Lucas, Dick. The Message of 2 Peter & Jude: the Promise of His Coming. Leicester, England. : IVP Academic, 2004. Eusebius. The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine. New York: Penguin Classics, 1990. Gilmour, Michael J. â€Å"Reflections On the Autho rship of 2 Peter. † Evangelical Quarterly 73, no. 4 (Oct. – Dec. 2001): 291-309. Lillie, John. Lectures On the First and Second Epistles of Peter. Reprint Edition ed. Minneapolis, MN: Klock & Klock Christian Pub, 1978.Mayor, Joseph B. The Epistle of St. Jude and the Second Epistle of St. Peter: Greek Text with Introduction Notes and Comments. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979. Moo, Douglas J. 2 Peter, and Jude: from Biblical Text– to Contemporary Life. Grand Rapids, Mich. : Zondervan, 1997. Pfeiffer, Robert Henry. History of New Testament Times,: with an Introduction to the Apocrypha. Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1972. Walls, David. Holman New Testament Commentary – 1 & 2 Peter, 1 2 & 3 John and Jude. niv based ed. Nashville, TN: Holman Reference, 1999. ——————————————– 1 ]. Michael Gilmour, â€Å"Reflections On the Authorship of 2 Peter,† Evangelic al Quarterly, Oct. – Dec. 2001, 294. [ 2 ]. Ibid, 296. [ 3 ]. Eusebius, The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine (New York: Penguin Classics, 1990), 107. [ 4 ]. Michael Gilmour, 297. [ 5 ]. Ibid, 297. [ 6 ]. Robert Henry Pfeiffer, History of New Testament Times,: with an Introduction to the Apocrypha. (Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1972. 490. [ 7 ]. Ibid, 491. [ 8 ]. Dick Lucas & Christopher Green, The Message of 2 Peter & Jude: the Promise of His Coming (Leicester, England. IVP Academic, 2004), 242. [ 9 ]. Michael Gilmour, 300. [ 10 ]. Dick Lucas and Christopher Green, 243. [ 12 ]. 2 Peter 2:1,(NASB). [ 15 ]. MacArthur [ 16 ]. Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, p. 832. [ 17 ]. Ibid,836. [ 18 ]. Bigg, Critical and Exegetical Commentary, p. 227. [ 20 ]. Bigg, Critical and Exegetical Commentary, p. 239. [ 21 ]. 1 Peter 5:12, (NASB). [ 23 ]. Ernst Ksemann, â€Å"An Apologia for Primitive Christian Eschatology,† Essays on New Testament Themes, Studies in Biblical Theology, 42, 1964, p. 169 [ 25 ]. 2 Peter 3:4 [ 26 ]. 2 Peter3:15, NIV [ 27 ].Dr. Leo Percer, lecture notes. [ 28 ]. Acts 4:13, (KJV). [ 30 ]. W. F. Howard, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament, 2:28. [ 31 ]. 2 Peter 1:12, (NASB). [ 32 ]. Jude 5, (NASB) [ 34 ]. Daniel B. Wallace, ed. , Revisiting the Corruption of the New Testament: Manuscript, Patristic, and Apocryphal Evidence (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2011), pageNr. [ 35 ]. Harris, Stephen L.. Understanding the Bible: a reader's introduction, 2nd ed. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. page 354. [ 39 ]. Inerrancy [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1980], 106). [ 40 ]. 2 Peter 1:1

A Secret for Two by Quentin Reynolds

So, the narrative code is present here and the work itself is a short story: ;Short – Can usually be read in one setting (it presents a general picture of Pierre Duping life; some harassers -? Pierre Duping, horse Joseph, Jacques, episodic: president, driver, doctor; it has small proportions: about 1025 words); ;Concise: Information offered in the story is relevant to the tale being told (the narrator don't escape from the main plot); ;Usually tries to leave behind a single impression or effect (The story is built around one character -? Pierre Duping, place -? Montreal, Idea -? a good work is achieved by those who really find common ground); Going deeper to the pre-textual level, we can detect: the title constitutes a nominal syntax which Is compound from a secret – a noun, and for two-a numeral (It requests two people). Usually, a secret Is kept by a single person but here we have a secret shared by two. Secret ; something that should remain hidden from others (especi ally information that is not to be passed on), and it requests info, information – a message received and understood, and confidence – a secret that is confided or entrusted to another.The syntax deals with human reality and it implies the consciousness and the spiritual sphere of human being. The title follows the orientation function: it gives general impressions about hat will happen and what we should discover, it gives hidden hints; the informative function: we should find out something, the text tells something about two person; the pragmatic function: It rises reader's interest as a secret usually is kept by one person but this secret Is shared by two, and you think a secret for two†¦ What Is the secret? Who are they? -? you long for finding out something†¦ At the beginning the narrator places the action in a concrete place: in Montreal (a city in Canada), on Prince Edward Street (actually, it is a prospect nowadays).The time s not defined: it happens in the period when horses and wagons were used to carry and deliver milk. In the centre Pierre Duping is placed. The narrator concretions: he had delivered the milk to the families on the street for thirty years (that's the prologue). Time passes; Pierre and Joseph are getting old. The president encourages him to go to retirement but he refuses (conflict). They continue to deliver milk (development of the action). But comes a cold day when the horse dies (climax). Pierre gets Into a shock. He refuses to work any more (limited of the action). The deep rife doesn't let him hear the wagon's signals. He Is killed Instantly.The doctor states the man has been blind for at least five years (outcome). This was the secret kept by Pierre and his horse. Now analyzing deeper the Intra-textual level I detect 6 major narrative blocks. Each block is characterized by internal semantic and structural alt. L. Hrs narrative Deadlock: Montreal is a very large city. Like all Large cities, it has small s treets. Streets, for example, Like Prince Edward Street -? only four blocks Long. No one knew Prince Edward Street as well as Pierre Duping. He had delivered milk to the families on the street for thirty years. † This paragraph presents the place (Montreal, Prince Edward Street) and introduces the main character (Pierre Duping).It is composed of 5 sentences: 3 sentences comprise descriptive elements (lager city, small streets, four blocks Long), other 2 -? narrative elements (knew Prince Edward Street, He had delivered milk). This part is a perfect example of textual coherence: the linguistic side of coherence is insured by lexical links established between sentences: Montreal is a very large city. Like all Large cities, it has small streets. Ђ? link 1 Like all Large cities, it has small streets. Streets, for example, Like Prince Edward Street-only four blocks Long. -? link 2 Streets, for example, Like Prince Edward Street -? only four blocks Long. No one knew Prince Edwar d Street as well as Pierre Duping -? . Ink 3 No one knew Prince Edward Street as well as Pierre Duping. He had delivered milk to the families on the street for thirty years. -? link 4 Links 1- 4 connects the sentences of the fragment at the surface level, and the use of same lexemes (city, street, Prince Edward Street) insures the psychological side of renounce as it respects the connections between the concepts and idea (Nontransferable city, Prince Edward Street-small street), between objects (Montreal- city-stretchiness Edward Street-Pierre Duping) and actions (He had delivered milk to the families on the street) reported. One can clearly imagine a concrete place and a man who works here.Cohesion comes to support coherence: lexical chain: lexemes presenting place -? Montreal, city, streets, blocks; ellipsis: the omission of the verb -? Streets, for example, Like Prince Edward Street -? only four blocks Long to avoid repetition of has; Tense: Present Simple (is, has: narrator pres ents a general description, available to any time); Past Simple (knew) and Past Perfect (had delivered): places the events in the past as the narrator makes a retrospection of what is being told; 0 Junctions: show comparison (simile: Like all Large cities), illustration (for example, Like Prince Edward Street). They help getting a vivid picture and arises reader's trust; II.Second narrative block: For the past fifteen years, a large white horse pulled his milk wagon. In Montreal, especially in the French part of the city, animals and children are often even the names of saints. Pierce's horse had no name when it first came to the milk company. Pierre was told he could use the horse. He moved his hand gently and lovingly across the horse's neck and sides. He looked into the animal's eyes. â€Å"This is a gentle horse,† Pierre said. â€Å"l can see a beautiful spirit shining out of its eyes. I will name him after Saint Joseph, who also was a gentle and beautiful spirit. † I en Treatment presents another stage when ten mall contracted gets a Eternal -? w horse Joseph.Cohesion is supported here by using pronouns he, it, I, and verbs at Past Simple in active and passive voice (pulled, are given, had, came, was told, moved, looked, said) as the narration is guided to present events; such Junctions reveal emphasis (especially in the French part of the city), time sequence (for the past fifteen years), addition (who also was †¦ ). The text contains a monologue sequence when Pierre reflects about horse's name (â€Å"This is a gentle horse,† Pierre said. â€Å"l can see a beautiful spirit shining out of its eyes. I will name him after Saint Joseph, who also was a gentle and beautiful spirit. â€Å") -? so Pierre is a deep, contemplative person.Among stylistic devices detected here: Epithet: moved his hand gently and lovingly -? the character is a kind person, he loves animals and treats them with a lot of care; gentle horse -? this horse woul d not make problems; ; Metaphor: beautiful spirit shining out of its eyes -? character sees a transcendental, divine energy coming from that animal, that's why he makes a ; Parallelism with Saint Josef who also was a gentle and beautiful spirit; ; Lexical units regard professional terms (milk wagon, company), parts of body (neck, sides, eyes), lexemes connected with religion (Saint Joseph, beautiful spirit). Ill. Third narrative block: After about a year, the horse, Joseph, got to know every house that received milk, and every house that did not. Every morning at five, Pierre arrived at the milk company's stables to find his wagon already filled with bottles of milk and Joseph waiting for him, Pierre would call, â€Å"Bonjour, my old friend,† as he climbed into his seat, while Joseph turned his head toward the driver. The other drivers would smile. They said that the horse smiled at Pierre. Then Pierre would softly call to Joseph, â€Å"Vance, moon aim. And the two would go proudly down the street. Without any order from Pierre, the wagon would roll down three streets. Then it turned right for two streets, before turning left to Saint Catherine Street. The horse finally stopped at the first house on Prince Edward Street. There, Joseph would wait perhaps thirty seconds for Pierre to get down off his seat and put a bottle of milk at the front door. Then the horse walked past the next two houses and stopped at the third. And without being told, Joseph would turn around and come back along the other side. Ah yes, Joseph was a smart horse. Pierre would talk about Joseph. L never touch the reins. He knows Just where to stop.Why, a blind man could deliver my milk with Joseph pulling the wagon. † This part is narrative sequence. A lot of Junctions come to support the cohesion and coherence: a lot of attention is vocalizes on time markers after about a year, every morning at five, adverb already, while, then, before as the events have duration and the cha racter life follows its course; addition and, summary finally, place there. The characters who participate in the action are Joseph (the horse) and Pierre that's why they are the subjects of sentences. Verbs are as usually in the past (AS received, arrived, stopped, smiled, said†¦ ; would call, would go, would Walt, would turn around. As ten action Implies a manually character it's obviously to have a lot of lexemes emphasizing directions and position toward, down, left, right, front, around, back ; lexemes regarding occupation milk company, wagon, driver, reins, pulling; place markers Saint Catherine Street, Prince Edward Street, house; verbs of action received, go down, roll down, turned, walked, deliver, pulling. These words are part of colloquial vocabulary. From literary scapulars should be mentioned barbarisms â€Å"Bonjour, my old friend,† and â€Å"Vance, moon am'† because they offer information about social background of character: Pierre is a Canadian wh o knows French as he works in French part of the city. These formulas become cliches. Also the text includes some stylistic devices: Antithesis: every house that received milk, and every house that did not. Ђ? the structure gives more familiarity and shows that characters were very meticulously; ; Personification: Joseph, got to know, the horse smiled at Pierre, smart horse -? in this way the horse comes a character, the narrator and Pierre reveal their tender attitude toward an animal; ; Allusion: a blind man could deliver my milk with Joseph pulling the wagon -? Pierre knew he had some problems with eyesight and he gave hints to others; ; IV. Forth narrative block: And so it went on for years-always the same. Pierre and Joseph slowly grew old together. Pierce's huge walrus mustache was white now and Joseph didn't lift his knees so high or raise his head quite so much.Jacques, the bossism of the stables, never noticed that they both were getting old until Pierre appeared one mo rning arraying a heavy walking stick. â€Å"Hey, Pierre,† Jacques laughed. â€Å"Maybe you got the gout, hey? † â€Å"Mass out, Jacques,† Pierre said. â€Å"One grows old. One's legs get tired. † â€Å"Well, you should teach that horse to carry the milk to the front door for you,† Jacques told him. â€Å"He does everything else. † The horse knew every one of the forty families that got milk on Prince Edward Street. The cooks knew that Pierre could not read or write; so, instead of leaving orders in an empty milk bottle, they simply sang out if they needed an extra bottle. â€Å"Bring an extra bottle this morning, Pierre,† they often nag when they heard Pierce's wagon rumble over the street. So you have visitors for dinner tonight,† Pierre would happily answer. Pierre also had a wonderful memory. When he arrived at the stable he always remembered to tell Jacques, â€Å"The Pausing took an extra bottle this morning; the Limousine s bought a pint of cream†¦ † Most of the drivers had to make out the weekly bills and collect the money, but Jacques, liking Pierre, never asked him to do this. All Pierre had to do was arrive at five in the morning, walk to his wagon, which always was in the same place, and deliver his milk. He returned about two hours later, got down from his seat, called a cheery â€Å"Au over† to Jacques, then walked slowly down the street.This part contains narrative sequence and ideological sequence. It introduces another character -? Jacques, the bossism of the stables. Narration is supported by verbs in the AS went, grew, was, didn't lift, noticed, appeared, laughed, told, knew, sang, had, returned†¦ Junctions Introduce sun relations as: Alton (Ana so), contrast (so, out), time sequence (until, when, then). Ideological sequence is revealed by those two relations established: Pierre-Jacques, Pierre-cooks. These are familial relations because characters use colloquial le xemes: â€Å"Hey, Pierre†, â€Å"So you have visitors for dinner tonight†. Pierre continues to use barbarisms â€Å"Mass out, Jacques,†, â€Å"Au over†.Other lexemes are included in parts of human body (mustache, knees, head, legs), duties (remembered to tell Jacques, make out the weekly bills, collect the money, arrive at five in the morning, deliver his milk, return about two hours later), regarding his Job (cooks, extra bottle, wagon rumble, deliver, weekly bills). The text contains: ; Epithet: huge walrus mustache -? it sounds like a simile because the Pierce's sachet are as huge as walrus ones; wonderful memory -? he had a good memory; Synecdoche: legs get tired -? actually Pierre got tired, he wanted to paraphrase the fact he is old; Allusion: â€Å"One grows old. One's legs get tired. † -? this is the life, we all get old some day; Sandstone: â€Å"One grows old. One's legs get tired. -? the omission of conjunction makes a little confusion: who really gets old: the horse or Pierre? Whose legs get tired: his or horse? It's a reflection with different interpretations; Irony: Well, you should teach that horse to carry the milk to the front door for you -? it's a Joke tit ironic purpose: Pierre is old and is not able any more to work; V. Fifth narrative block: One day the president of the milk company came to inspect the early morning milk deliveries. Jacques pointed to Pierre and said, â€Å"Watch how he talks to that horse. See how the horse listens and how he turns his head toward Pierre? See the look in that horse's eyes? You know, I think those two share a secret. I have often felt it.It's as though they both sometimes laugh at us as they go off Pierre†¦ Pierre is a good man, Monsieur President, but he is getting old. Maybe he ought to be given a rest, and a mall pension. † â€Å"Oh but of course,† the president laughed. ‘l know Pierce's work. He has been on this job now for thirty years. All who know him, love him. Tell him it is time he rested. He'll get his pay every week as before. † But Pierre refused to leave his Job. He said his life would be nothing if he could not drive Joseph every day. â€Å"We are two old men,† he said to Jacques. â€Å"Let us wear out together. When Joseph is ready to leave, then I too will do so. † There was something about Pierre and his horse that made a man smile tenderly.Each seemed to get some hidden strength from the other. As Pierre sat in is seat, with Joseph tied to the wagon, neither seemed old. But when they finished their work -? then Pierre walked lamely down the street, seeming very old indeed, and the horse's head dropped and he walked slowly to his stall. I Nils part contains International tout ten quality AT Peeler Ana Joseph work revealed mainly in the dialogue of Jacques and the president of the milk company. First three paragraphs represent a ideological sequence. It can be noticed verbs which imply communication (said, talks, look, laughed, tell, refused), nouns regarding Pierce's Job (president, milk company, deliveries, pay, pension, wagon).Among pro-forms the most spread are the pronoun I (l think, I have often felt, I know), he (he turns, he talks, he is getting old, He'll get his pay, He said, he could not drive) when they talk about Pierre, we and they when the couple Pierre-Joseph is stressed. The last paragraph continues the narrative sequence presenting ordinary habits of protagonists (Pierre sat in his seat, with Joseph tied to the wagon, Pierre walked lamely down the street, the horse's head dropped and he walked slowly to his stall). Junctions that come to help the plot reveal most time (One day, When, then), contrast (But). Some stylistic devices should be mentioned: Emotional climax: Watch how he talks to that horse.See how the horse listens and how he turns his head toward Pierre? See the look in that horse's eyes? -? it stresses the emotional intensity got by J acques analyzing Pierre, and he wants to capture president's attention playing with his motiveless; ; Epithet: smile tenderly -? people were smiling with satisfaction, with a lot of admiration; ; Antithesis: As Pierre sat in his seat, with Joseph tied to the wagon, neither ; seemed old. -? . But when they finished their work -? then Pierre walked namely down the street, seeming very old indeed the narrator wants to reveal the magic power that persisted between Pierre-Joseph when they worked together, so they make up a dialectical couple; VI.Sixth narrative block: Then one cold morning Jacques had terrible news for Pierre. It was still dark. The air was like ice. Snow had fallen during the night. Jacques said, â€Å"Pierre, your horse, Joseph, didn't wake up. He was very old, Pierre. He was twenty-five and that is like being seventy-five for a man. † â€Å"Yes,† Pierre said slowly. â€Å"Yes. I am seventy-five. And I cannot see Joseph again. â€Å"Oh, of course you ca n,† Jacques said softly. â€Å"He is over in his stall, looking very peaceful. Go over and see him. † Pierre took one step forward, then turned. â€Å"No†¦ No you don't understand, Jacques. † Jacques patted him on he shoulder. â€Å"We'll find another horse Just as good as Joseph.Why, in a month you'll teach him to know all the homes as well as Joseph did. We'll†¦. † The look in Pierce's eyes stopped him. For years Pierre had worn a large heavy cap that came down low over his eyes. It kept out the bitter cold wind. Now, Jacques looked into Pierce's eyes and he saw something that shocked him. He saw a dead, Lifeless Look in them. â€Å"Take the day off, Pierre,† Jacques said But Pierre was gone limping down the street. Pierre walked to the comer and stepped into the street. There was a warning shout from the driver of a big truck. There was the screech of rubber tires as the truck tried to stop. But Pierre†¦ Pierre heard nothing. Five minutes later a doctor said, â€Å"He's dead†¦ Kilted instantly. â€Å"l couldn't help it,† the truck driver said, â€Å"He walked in front of my truck. He he never saw it, I guess. Why, he walked as though he were blind. † The doctor Dent clown. â€Å"Bin? AT course ten man was ulna. Tense g r WTLS-; I Nils man NAS been blind for five years. † He turned to Jacques, â€Å"You say he worked for you? Didn't you know he was blind? † â€Å"No no † Jacques said softly. â€Å"None of us knew. Only one†¦ Only one knew–a friend of his, named Joseph It was†¦ It was a secret, I think, just between those two. † This part is the biggest and it contains different narrative modes: narration is combined with ideological sequence and with explanatory elements in the end.Vocabulary is made up of lexemes regarding nature reality (morning, dark, air, ice, snow, night, cold wind), human reality (wake up, see, looking, teach, heard, said, alkyd, were blind), traffic (street, warning shout, driver, truck, screech of rubber tires). Following the chronological order time markers are very important Then one cold morning, For years, Now, Five minutes later; and a significant role plays the junction Of course as it emphasizes the moments of emotional intensity, and But -? it rises the thrill. A description opens the block: Then one cold morning Jacques had terrible news for Pierre. It was still dark. The air was like ice. Snow had fallen during the night. -? it creates a specific mood, something bad will happen.Three explanatory sequences help to complete the outcome: Driver's explanation: â€Å"l couldn't help it,† the truck driver said, â€Å"He walked in front of my truck. He he never saw it, I guess. Why, he walked as though he were blind. † he tries to convince the others that it is not his fault, partly he still is in shock; 0 Doctor's explanation: â€Å"Blind? Of course the man was blind. See those gr owths? This man has been blind for five years. † He turned to Jacques, â€Å"You say he worked for you? Didn't you know he was blind? † -? one may notice a little fury in his voice, doctor is really upset, resentful about what appended; 0 Jacques explanation: â€Å"No no † Jacques said softly. â€Å"None of us knew. Only one†¦ Only one knew–a friend of his, named Joseph It was†¦ T was a secret, I think, Just between those two. † -? he also feels terrified, and guilty; Stylistic devices help to enrich artistic language and complete what is unsaid by the narrator: ; Simile: The air was like ice -? it was very cold; He was twenty-five and that is like being seventy-five for a man. † -? they both are very old; We'll find another horse Just as good as Joseph -? a horse that is as gentle as Joseph; he walked as though he were blind -? he didn't see nothing; ; Epithet: terrible news -? very bad news; heavy cap -? a cap that only seemed naiv ely, ; ; Germination: Peeler†¦ Peeler near nothing, He en never saw, Only one†¦ Only one knew, It was†¦ T was a secret -? it's a kind of shock that terrifies the speakers, they are unable to express their thoughts; As it is noticed the narration follows the chronological order because the events presented begin with the moment when Pierre receives the Job and finishes with his death. Also this fact is supported by time markers as after about a year, every ironing at five, then, one day, for thirty years, being seventy-five for a man. The straight line narrative is respected and the facilitation is fixed. The narrator adopts the Ill-person point of view because he wants to give more credibility to the story being told. That's why the text includes more narrative sequences, the majority of verbs are in Past Simple (knew, pulled, said, turned, stopped, sang†¦ ), the use of pronoun he and unctuousness Pierre, Joseph, Jacques, cooks, drivers†¦The narrative perspe ctive is neuter because the narrator use camera recording in presenting the vents: everything is seen like in a movie, first it is described the place (Montreal) then the main characters are introduced (Pierre, Joseph) after that the narrator registers the main relations fixed with other characters Jacques, drivers, cooks, president), their interactions. After G. Genet the narrator point of view is external: what is recorded represents the surface level (For the past fifteen years, a large white horse pulled his milk wagon. In Montreal, especially in the French part of the city, animals and children are often given the names of saints. ); after TX. Outdoor the narrator knows less than his character: N

To what extent is gender conflict a major theme of Aeschylus' Oresteia Essay

To what extent is gender conflict a major theme of Aeschylus' Oresteia - Essay Example The identification of the role of gender in the work of Greek classics could be particularly useful. In accordance with Zeitlin (1996, p. 9) ‘gender can always be used as a coded sign to stand for some more abstract category in organizing a specific world view and the means to its maintenance or transformation’. From another point of view, it is stated that for Greek classics ‘Gender is a primary articulator of the social order, of history, and especially of the history of welfare’ (Porter, 1986m, 232 in Rich et al., 1993, p.110). It should be noticed that gender in Greek philology is not used only as a representation of social and cultural ethics – through metaphors; instead, it is used in order to highlight the differences in the responses of individuals to various social and political challenges. In this context, gender has to be combined with other concepts – as freedom, politics, family and so on – in order to support the developmen t of credible assumptions regarding the aspects of life of people of a particular historical period. Aeschylus’ Oresteia can be characterized as a rather innovative work – in terms of the social issues developed. For this reason, Porter (2005) supported that ‘although Aeschylus Oresteia moves toward resolution on many fronts, there are significant counterpoints to these positive progressions; human stature and initiative decline over the course of the trilogy’ (Porter, 2005, p. 301). It is not made clear whether the role of gender for this differentiation in the responses of the dramatis personae is decisive; it seems that gender influences at a first level the reactions to specific events – developed throughout the Oresteia – however, it is not clear whether these reactions are depended only on gender or whether there are other factors also influencing the

Common Sense Notions of Political Action and Power Essay

Common Sense Notions of Political Action and Power - Essay Example g whether it be on certain issues or the election of a representative, starting a petition on a certain issue, sending a message through social media, or participating in a committee. Therefore, taking these definitions and examples into account it would be safe for us to assume that there are two groups of people involved in the political action process. The first group is the one that is seeking to send out a message and the second group is the one who will receive the message. In fact, according to Micheal Kaulbars (2009), a trained research biologist who is very active on environmental and social justice issues, the standard model of political struggle includes two groups; the activists and the target. In this model he describes the activists as the group of people who use protests, petitions, hunger strikes, and other forms of campaigning techniques to directly influence their target’s behavior. The target in response to these actions creates counter groups and media camp aigns to influence the activist’s behavior. Kaulbars (2009) criticizes this model of political action as being ‘too’ simplified. In fact, this standard model is a perfect description of the â€Å"common sense† notions surrounding political action. According to him, this model is unsuccessful at explaining political action because the activists described rarely have enough power to make a difference. Hence, now that we know a little more about political action we must analyze what part it may play in the running of an organization? In fact in order to understand an organization we must look at it as a political system (Management Consulting Courses, n.d). To elaborate on this further we must redefine politics in relation to an organization. In an organization, politics are a means to recognize and reconcile conflicting interests between individuals. This makes sense as organizations; especially large ones are made up of a number of very diverse individuals which will no doubt translate into diversity in interests and agendas. Hence, it is safe to say that organizations create an environment that is perfect for political action. In fact, according to Ammeter et al., (2002), there are three basic levels of political action in organizations; individual, coalition and network. At the individual level leaders try to influence individuals in the organization through one-on-one relationships. Furthermore, at the coalition level, coalitions are formed by leaders through convincing peers, subordinates and other members in the organization to join a force in order to pursue common interests. Lastly, in the network level, individuals and groups are tied together into an interconnected system. Therefore, we may look at the networking level as a result of the individual and the coalition level. First individuals are influenced which leads to the formation of groups eventually leading to the formation of a network. To elaborate further on political action

Market Research in a Recession Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Market in a Recession - Research Paper Example For any CMO who is reading this article will start thinking of making changes to his or her approach towards using market research as a tool for making strategic decisions in light of the associated costs of it. Even for market research companies who will be crucially hit by the reduced spending of clients can start brainstorming on a new approach which is cost-effective so that they don’t end up losing its business. A marketing decision is directly affected by this article because it indicates that in the current situation of decreased consumer spending, the trends and patterns have changed quite substantially making it difficult for any marketing person to take a decision on its basis. Consumers are switching brands, changing preferences and looking for deals. Consumer loyalty is shaken in current times where the consumer has become highly cost conscious. Hence a marketing decision should be taken by considering these changes and trying to apply the seven points mentioned in the article. In addition to the current points made by the writer, he himself could have done a small study of companies in different sectors to clearly prove the trend of reduced spending on market research. The writer could have done two distinct things, by using market research himself to prove his point. One, a telephonic interview session with CMOs of Marketing Managers involved in the strategic decision and understand their viewpoint on the current scenario. This small study would have helped him to fortify his claims and support these seven points better.

Analysis of Pre-school in Three Cultures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analysis of Pre-school in Three Cultures - Essay Example Teacher and students repeat the date, day and whether aloud which gives them knowledge of their surroundings and time. Thus most of the time a child is doing something himself to learn and practice a new idea which helps to mature his mental modals about various real life phenomena. There is a 120 minute academic session with very little explicit academic instructions and children are supposed to learn by practice. The teacher encourages the children involvement in non-academic activities like singing, telling jokes and stories during these academic sessions. After lunch break the children are allowed to play all around the school where they learn through mutual interaction and cooperation. Teacher encourages unattended mutual resolution of disputes among children which instigate problem solving behavior among children. The teachers at Japanese pre-school have strong believe that problem solving and dispute resolutions, and empathy are important skills that a child learns through ear ly childhood fighting and interaction with other children. Thus finding a solution himself is constructive for his learning experience. Origami, a Japanese art of making shapes by folding paper is yet another way of constructive learning at pre-schools. Children learn the persistence when they encounter problems, cooperate with each other. According to teachers origami is an important tool in constructive learning. At Dong-feng pre-school and day care center in China, the principal thinks that it is good for children as they learn to interact with each other. In classrooms there are several activities like children sing songs and match wooden elements with drawing on a page. At Saint Timothy in Honolulu Hawaii children come and have free play before the school formally starts. The school... This paper stresses that behaviorism aims to bring measureable positive changes in children behaviors through practice and learning. Behavioral disobedience or rudeness are difficult to control and require a lot more methodical approach to address the actual issue behind any such behavioral problem. You may teach them to obey through self example of doing something good and polite repetition of tasks you designed to inculcate some basic learning outcomes in the children. The authos declares that a disciplined and self controlled behavior may help children to learn the skills of self control and disciple in the process. If child has some dispute with other child at play or learning area the American teacher encourage children to express their grievances instead hitting or entangling with each other. While in Japanese teacher encourages mutual resolution of disputes thus instigate problem solving behavior among children. This report makes a conclusion that constructive and behavioral techniques and methodologies in three countries best suit to their cultures. The approaches are hard learned and time tested therefore, more often than not any change is resisted strictly. However, in changing environment of modern societies these methods and techniques are required to be reviewed and revisited constantly to bring about the changes that may help to instigate more practical and applicable approaches towards inculcating constructiveness and behavioral upholding of the children. The best approach is to let children learn through personal experience and a display of exemplary behavior.

Home as the centre of Judaism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Home as the centre of Judaism - Essay Example The two movement that will be considered as a show of the various precincts through which the home is a centre of Judaism is the conservative and reformist movements of Judaism. Conservative Jews believe in the core values of its rituals and roles as the practice of what one believes in the daily practices. Reform Judaism believes that the written and oral laws are because of human intervention and the time of its giving as regards the Torah. In both the conservative and reformists, the core value is on the language, Hebrew as the reflection of the beliefs of Judaism and their cultures. It is what holds all Jews together is the language used as a family; hence, forming the first way where a home is a basis for Judaism (Neusner, 1994).  Ã‚  Ã‚     Largely, the home has become the centre of Judaism owing to the various roles, rituals, and practices that are practiced and observed at the home by family members. These rituals and practices are diverse as presented in the following pa rts of this essay. Judaism has been centered at home owing to the rules of dressing by Jews that occur within the family unit. The Halacha forms the basis for the generation of community customs and modesty that determine the dressing code for the Jewish women (Hoffman, 2008). The Halacha gives a number of guidelines for a Jewish woman’s dressing with the sleeves having to be at least below the elbow while the dresses and blouses must have necklines that do not show any cleavage. Skirts won by the women must be high enough. to ensure that when seated the knees are not exposed. Skirts are mainly worn by women in all occasions but there are exceptional instances where they are allowed to be in pants. These instances include agricultural activities where the wearing of the dress would lead to inefficiency in the performance of the various duties. At other times, they have to have to wear their skirts. However, the conservationists Jews are the ones who strictly follow the guidel ines in the Halacha while the Reform Judaism movement does give the adherent’s freedom to choose which rituals to follow. The conservationist movement is very clear in its statement of the superiority of men over women in the home set up. This is also shown by the segregation of women and men at the synagogue during worship and in leading rituals and other religious practices. This is however different in reformist movement where there is acceptance of the universal equality of men and women in all religious rituals, study and the observance of the rules.

My Trip to the Grocery Store Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

My Trip to the Grocery Store - Essay Example On a hot summer’s day with the sun beating down on us, I was taken out to do some shopping with my mom. â€Å"Yes,† I responded, as my mother broke the news to me that we would be going to the most popular grocery store in Ahmadi City: the Sultan Center. This was located in Alshuwaikh and was some way out of the city. Although it took a long time to get there, this was quite a regular trip for me because I always enjoyed helping choose the food that would tie us over for the next week. As I had no concept of money at that stage in my life, I would pick up anything that took my fancy and places it in the shopping cart as fast as I could. To try and hide this from my mom, I would strategically place something else on top of it so that she would not notice anything suspicious. On this occasion, I wanted to find some chocolate. I loved chocolate! However, chocolate was not in its usual place. This was very confusing for me because it had always been in that one particular p lace without fail. Without giving it any thought at all, I was determined to set upon a mission to track down my beloved chocolate. I waited until the opportune moment—when my mother wasn’t looking—so that I could creep away as a spy would.   Very soon I had stumbled upon the candy aisle and began scanning the shelves for my beloved chocolate. After spending a couple of minutes looking, I was surprised to not be able to find what I was looking for. This had me really puzzled. Where could it be if not the candy aisle? I decided that the store must have been hiding it from me and so I continued my search for my prize. By this time, I realized that I had completely forgotten about my mom—she must have been worried sick. It was at this thought that a loud siren rang out over the intercom; although I could not comprehend what was being said. By now I had covered most of the store and could still not find the chocolate that I was looking for. My little legs were so tired from all the walking and crawling all over the store, so I sat down right where I was. All of the sudden the thought occurred to me that I had done a terrible thing—would I ever find my way back to my mom? I didn’t know what to do, so I be gan bawling my eyes out. It didn’t take long for a staff attendant to come over to me to see what the problem was. â€Å"What seems to be the matter,† they remarked. I communicated that I was lost and could not find my way back to my mother. The tall, blonde woman took the biscuits out of my hand and grabbed my hand. She reassured me that she would be taking me to a safe place where my mother would be able to find me. I climbed up the stairs and was placed on a chair in an office. This brought back memories of my trip to the dentist. At the thought of this, my tear started to flow. This was like my worst nightmare!

Fashion design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fashion design - Essay Example oduce a range of clothing and aesthetics designs that will capture the interests of the customers, by following the developing trends and even going back to reinvigorate some traditional or ancient clothing styles and aesthetic components that were fashionable during the time, which can also integrate fully into the current tastes and preferences of the people (Eceiza and Alvarez, 22). Design functionality and aesthetic value forms the fundamental principles of fashion design, since a fashion designer must come up with a design that functions well for the current generation, while also matching the emerging trends and thus giving a touch of aesthetically pleasant attire. Most significant in the world of fashion design, is the consideration into who is likely to wear the garment or the accessory that has been produced, and on what occasions is the attire desirable. Therefore, with the interest of the current generation on the forefront, coupled by the occasional desirability and aesthetic appearance, a fashion designer is sure to remain in the business. There are a variety of skills that are desirable for an individual to qualify as a fashion designer. First, a wide knowledge in fabrics, ornaments, garments and fashion trends is highly desirable for anyone waiting to become a fashion designer (Eceiza and Alvarez, 37). The knowledge of fabrics is essential; since it enables an individual understand what type of material is desirable to produce a clothing fashion, based on the occasions for which the clothing is designed. The knowledge of ornaments is also relevant, since it allows individuals to understand the types of ornaments that are suitable to produce certain accessories, and which of such ornaments is worth matching the dressing that is designed for such occasions (Brogden, 42). Another relevant requirement for a prospective fashion designer is the knowledge of fashion trends. This is necessary because fashion is not statistic, and thus new designs are

The differences between islamic banking and conventional Essay

The differences between islamic banking and conventional banking-system - Essay Example s that act as safe deposits of people’s savings without which they will have no place to save and will also face the risk of keeping all money at home. Banks also facilitate lending and people can borrow any amount of money they require in any convenient manner. Banks essentially act as intermediary between depositors who lend money to the band and borrowers to whom the banks lend money. The amount that banks pay to the depositors and the amount that they received from the borrowers are both called interest. Both depositors and borrowers can be individuals, families, organizations, governments and so on. Since at any point of time some depositors withdraw their money, many others do not. This provides the banks opportunity to convert short term deposits, which are their liabilities to long term loans which are their assets. The interests that banks pay to their borrowers are less than the interests that the banks pay to their depositors. This difference serves as income of ban ks all over the world. Although banks play a crucial role in the management of money from depositors and lending money to the needy, banks are also indispensable for national and international payments system. Banks also create money. Individuals, organizations or governments do not only need banks as safe custody of their money, but they all also need to circulate their funds like money getting transferred from â€Å"buyers to sellers or employers to employees or taxpayers to governments† (Gobat). In this case too banks play a prominent role. They handle payments like issuing personal cheques to making electronic payments of large amounts between banks. The payments system is a â€Å"complex network of local, national, and international banks and often involves government central banks and private clearing facilities that match up what banks owe each other† (Gobat). In today’s era of international trade, most payments are administered instantly. An efficiently managed system of payme nts is

The History of Nokia Essay Example for Free

The History of Nokia Essay The predecessors of the modern Nokia were the Nokia Company (Nokia Aktiebolag), Finnish Rubber Works Ltd (Suomen Gummitehdas Oy) and Finnish Cable Works Ltd (Suomen Kaapelitehdas Oy). [13] Nokias history started in 1865 when mining engineer Fredrik Idestam established a groundwood pulp mill on the banks of the Tammerkoski rapids in the town of Tampere, in southwestern Finland in the Russian Empire and started manufacturing paper. [14] In 1868, Idestam built a second mill near the town of Nokia, fifteen kilometres (nine miles) west of Tampere by the Nokianvirta river, which had better resources for hydropower production. 15] In 1871, Idestam, with the help of his close friend statesman Leo Mechelin, renamed and transformed his firm into a share company, thereby founding the Nokia Company, the name it is still known by today. [15] Toward the end of the 19th century, Mechelins wishes to expand into the electricity business were at first thwarted by Idestams opposition. However, Idestams retirement from the management of the company in 1896 allowed Mechelin to become the companys chairman (from 1898 until 1914) and sell most shareholders on his plans, thus realizing his vision. 15] In 1902, Nokia added electricity generation to its business activities. [14] Networking equipment A Nokia P30 In the 1970s, Nokia became more involved in the telecommunications industry by developing the Nokia DX 200, a digital switch for telephone exchanges. The DX 200 became the workhorse of the network equipment division. Its modular and flexible architecture enabled it to be developed into various switching products. [25] In 1984, development of a version of the exchange for the Nordic Mobile Telephony network was started. 26] For a while in the 1970s, Nokias network equipment production was separated into Telefenno, a company jointly owned by the parent corporation and by a company owned by the Finnish state. In 1987, the state sold its shares to Nokia and in 1992 the name was changed to Nokia Telecommunications. In the 1970s and 1980s, Nokia developed the Sanomalaitejarjestelma (Message device system), a digital, portable and encrypted text-based communications device for the Finnish Defence Forces. [27] The current main unit used by the Defence Forces is the Sanomalaite M/90 (SANLA M/90). 28] In 1998, Check Point established a partnership with Nokia, which bundled Check Points Software with Nokias computer Network Security Appliances. [29] Involvement in GSM Nokia was one of the key developers of GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications),[35] the second-generation mobile technology which could carry data as well as voice traffic. NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephony), the worlds first mobile telephony standard that enabled international roaming, provided valuable experience for Nokia for its close participation in developing GSM, which was adopted in 1987 as the new European standard for digital mobile technology. 36][37] Nokia delivered its first GSM network to the Finnish operator Radiolinja in 1989. [38] The worlds first commercial GSM call was made on 1 July 1991 in Helsinki, Finland over a Nokia-supplied network, by then Prime Minister of Finland Harri Holkeri, using a prototype Nokia GSM phone. [38] In 1992, the first GSM phone, the Nokia 1011, was launched. [38][39] The model number refers to its launch date, 10 November. [39] The Nokia 1011 did not yet employ Nokias characteristic ringtone, the Nokia tune. It was introduced as a ringtone in 1994 with the Nokia 2100 series. 40] GSMs high-quality voice calls, easy international roaming and support for new services like text messaging (SMS) laid the foundations for a worldwide boom in mobile phone use. [38] GSM came to dominate the world of mobile telephony in the 1990s, in mid-2008 accounting for about three billion mobile telephone subscribers in the world, with more than 700 mobile operators across 218 countries and territories. New connection s are added at the rate of 15 per second, or 1. 3 million per day. [41] Challenges of growth  The Nokia House, Nokias head office located by the Gulf of Finland in Keilaniemi, Espoo, was constructed between 1995 and 1997. It is the workplace of more than 1,000 Nokia employees. [21] In the 1980s, during the era of its CEO Kari Kairamo, Nokia expanded into new fields, mostly by acquisitions. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the corporation ran into serious financial problems, a major reason being its heavy losses by the television manufacturing division and businesses that were just too diverse. [49] These problems, and a suspected total burnout, probably contributed to Kairamo taking his own life in 1988. After Kairamos death, Simo Vuorilehto became Nokias Chairman and CEO. In 1990–1993, Finland underwent severe economic depression,[50] which also struck Nokia. Under Vuorilehtos management, Nokia was severely overhauled. The company responded by streamlining its telecommunications divisions, and by divesting itself of the television and PC divisions. [51] Probably the most important strategic change in Nokias history was made in 1992, however, when the new CEO Jorma Ollila made a crucial strategic decision to concentrate solely on telecommunications. 23] Thus, during the rest of the 1990s, the rubber, cable and consumer electronics divisions were gradually sold as Nokia continued to divest itself of all of its non-telecommunications businesses. [23] As late as 1991, more than a quarter of Nokias turnover still came from sales in Finland. However, after the strategic change of 1992, Nokia saw a huge increase in sales to North America, South America and Asia. [52] The exploding worldwide popularity of mobile telephones, beyond even Nokias most optimistic predictions, caused a logistics crisis in the mid-1990s. 53] This prompted Nokia to overhaul its entire logistics operation. [54] By 1998, Nokias focus on telecommunications and its early investment in GSM technologies had made the company the worlds largest mobile phone manufacturer,[52] a position it would hold for the next 14 consecutive years until 2012. Between 1996 and 2001, Nokias turnover increased almost fivefold from 6. 5 billion euros to 31 billion euros. [52] Logistics continues to be one of Nokias major advantages over its rivals, along with greater economies of scale. [55][56] 2000 to present Product releases The Nokia 3310 sold between 2000 and 2003, is arguably one of the most well known mobile phones. Reduction in size of Nokia mobile phones Nokia launched its Nokia 1100 handset in 2003,[30] with over 200 million units shipped, was the best-selling mobile phone of all time and the worlds top-selling consumer electronics product. [57] Nokia was one of the first players in the mobile space to recognize that there was a market opportunity in combining a game console and a mobile phone (both of which many gamers were carrying in 2003) into the N-Gage. The N-Gage was a mobile phone and game console meant to lure gamers away from the Game Boy Advance, though it cost twice as much. [58] The N-Gage was not a success, and from 2007 and 2008, Nokia started to offer an N-Gage service on existing Symbian S60 smartphones to play games. Nokia Productions was the first ever mobile filmmaking project directed by Spike Lee. Work began in April 2008, and the film premiered in October 2008. [59] In 2009, the company announced a high-end Windows-based netbook called the Nokia Booklet 3G. 48] On 2 September 2009, Nokia launched two new music and social networking phones, the X6 and X3. [60] The Nokia X6 featured 32GB of on-board memory with a 3. 2 finger touch interface and comes with a music playback time of 35 hours. The Nokia X3 was the first series 40 Ovi Store-enabled device. The X3 was a music device that comes with stereo speakers, built-in FM radio, and a 3. 2 megapixel camera. In 2009, Nokia also unveiled the 7705 Twist, a phone sporting a square shape that swiveled open to reveal a full QWERTY keypad, featuring a 3 megapixel camera, web browsing, voice commands and weighting around 3. 4 ounces (98 g). [61] On 9 August 2012, Nokia launched for the Indian market two new Asha range of handsets equipped with cloud accelerated Nokia browser, helping users browse the Internet faster and lower their spend on data charges. [62] Symbian Symbian was Nokias main smartphone OS until 2011. In Q4 2004, Nokia released its first touch screen phone, the Nokia 7710. In September 2006, Nokia announced the Nokia N95, a Symbian-powered slider smartphone. It was released in February 2007 as the first phone with a 5-megapixel camera. It became hugely popular. A 8GB variant was released in October 2007. In November 2007, Nokia announced and released the Nokia N82, its first Nseries phone with Xenon flash. At the Nokia World conference in December 2007, Nokia announced their Comes With Music program: Nokia device buyers are to receive a year of complimentary access to music downloads. [63] The service became commercially available in the second half of 2008. The first Nseries device, the N90, utilised the older Symbian OS 8. 1 mobile operating system, as did the N70. Subsequently Nokia switched to using SymbianOS 9 for all later Nseries devices (except the N72, which was based on the N70). Newer Nseries devices incorporate newer revisions of SymbianOS 9 that include Feature Packs. The N800, N810, N900, N9 and N950 are as of April 2012 the only Nseries devices (therefore excluding Lumia devices) to not use Symbian OS. They use the Linux-based Maemo, except the N9, which uses MeeGo. [64] In 2008, Nokia released the Nokia E71 which was marketed to directly compete with the other BlackBerry-type devices offering a full qwerty keyboard and cheaper prices. Nokia stated that Maemo would be developed alongside Symbian. Maemo had since (Maemo 6 and beyond) merged with Intels Moblin, and became MeeGo. MeeGo was later canceled and a development is now continued under name Sailfish OS. [65] The Nokia N8, from September 2010, is the first device to function on the Symbian^3 mobile operating system. Nokia revealed that the N8 will be the last device in its flagship N-series devices to ship with Symbian OS. [66][67] Alliance with Microsoft The Nokia Lumia 920, Nokias current flagship device. On 11 February 2011, Nokias CEO Stephen Elop, a former head of Microsoft business division, unveiled a new strategic alliance with Microsoft, and announced it would replace Symbian and MeeGo with Microsofts Windows Phone operating system[69][70] except for mid-to-low-end devices, which would continue to run under Symbian. Nokia was also to invest into the Series 40 platform and release a single MeeGo product in 2011. [71] As part of the restructuring plan, Nokia planned to reduce spending on research and development, instead customising and enhancing the software line for Windows Phone 7. 72] Nokias applications and content store (Ovi) becomes integrated into the Windows Phone Store, and Nokia Maps is at the heart of Microsofts Bing and AdCenter. Microsoft provides developer tools to Nokia to replace the Qt framework, which is not supported by Windows Phone 7 devices. [73] Symbian became described by Elop as a franchise platform with Nokia planning to sell 150 million Symbian devices after the alliance was set up. MeeGo emphasis was on longer-term exploration, with plans to ship a MeeGo-related product later in 2012. Microsofts search engine, Bing was to become the search engine for all Nokia phones. Nokia also intended to get some level of customisation on WP7. [74] After this announcement, Nokias share price fell about 14%, its biggest drop since July 2009. [75] As Nokia was the largest mobile phone and smartphone manufacturer worldwide at the time,[76] it was suggested the alliance would make Microsofts Windows Phone 7 a stronger contender against Android and iOS. [73] Because previously increasing sales of Symbian smartphones began to fall rapidly in the beginning of 2011, Nokia was overtaken by Apple as the worlds biggest smartphone maker by volume in June 2011. 77] [78] In August 2011 Chris Weber, head of Nokias subsidiary in the U. S. , stated The reality is if we are not successful with Windows Phone, it doesnt matter what we do (elsewhere). He further added North America is a priority for Nokia ( ) because it is a key market for Microsoft. . [79] Nokia reported well above 1 million sales for its Lumia line up to 26 January 2012,[80][81] 2 million sales for the first quarter of 2012,[82] and 4 million for the second quarter of 2012. 83] In this quarter, Nokia only sold 600,000 smartphones (Symbian and Windows Phone 7) in North America. [84] For comparison, Nokia sold more than 30 million Symbian devices world-wide still in Q4 2010[85] and the Nokia N8 alone sold almost 4 million in its first quarter of sale. In Q2 2012, 26 million iPhones and 105 million Android phones have been shipped, but only 6. 8 million devices with Symbian and 5. 4 million with Windows Phone[86] While announcing an alliance with Groupon, Elop declared The competition is no t with other device manufacturers, its with Google. [87] European carriers have stated that Nokia Windows phones are not good enough to compete with Apple iPhone or Samsung Galaxy phones, that they are overpriced for what is not an innovative product and that No one comes into the store and asks for a Windows phone. [88] In June 2012, Nokia chairman Risto Siilasmaa told journalists that Nokia had a back-up plan in the eventuality that Windows Phone failed to be sufficiently successful in the market. [89][90] On October 29, 2012, Nokia said its high-end Lumia 820 and 920 phones, which will run on Microsofts Windows Phone 8 software, will each first operators and retail outlets in some European markets including France and Britain and later in Russia and Germany as well as other select markets. [91] On December 5, 2012, Nokia introduced two new smartphones, the Lumia 620 and Lumia 920T. The 620 was released in January 2013. In January 2013, Nokia reported 6. 6 million smartphone sales for Q4 2012 consisting of 2. 2 million Symbian and 4. 4 million sales of Lumia devices (Windows Phone 7 and 8). [92] In North America, only 700,000 mobile phones have been sold including smartphones. In May 2013 Nokia released the Asha platform for its low-end borderline smartphone devices

Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Cluster Environment

Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Cluster Environment Victoria Mamatova Trends and analysis of the effectiveness of the cluster environment Abstract Today competitiveness is a common? topic in the world, and it is used as a device to reach the optimal economic growth and stable development. Among the main problems for the development of industrial clusters in the absence of an obvious approach is to evaluating its performance. This research has reviewed the economic effectiveness indicators of innovative clusters. This work provides a review of several methods and approaches of evaluating the cluster performance. Then the most appropriate and fully describing approach will be chosen as the most optimum one. Introduction Clusters, due to their inherent capability to support cooperation between different innovation actors in a region, provide a favourable environment encouraging RD driven innovation closely linked to the markets needs. Clusters are now a new trend in the field of innovation and new technologies. In developed countries, they have long been a platform where innovative ideas are born and implemented into practice. Russia also recently discovered a similar phenomenon, but already rapidly developing more and more opportunities in this area. The aim of this work is to study the methods for assessing the effectiveness of innovation clusters, and identifying common trends in the development of the cluster environment. This research proposal expects to have the following outcomes by the end of the project. First, it is important to define the measurement of the economic effectiveness of each cluster. The next objective is to develop quantitative and qualitative indicators that evaluate the effectiveness of clusters, to apply these indicators to the analysis of clusters and confirm the validity of these indicators. Then the analysis of the mechanism and methods required for analysis of cluster environment will be discovered.   In addition, it will be discussed the different approaches towards clusters and find the most appropriate one. Then given a review on the consequences of these concepts for economic and industrial policy. Finally, it will provide description of national and regional approaches in supporting clus ters and identifies the main challenges that clusters meet today for its proper functioning and development. Nowadays there is no any system or standard accepted, where would be a unite criteria for estimating performance of the cluster. Clusters can be estimated by each criteria separately. However, it is hard to define the whole effectiveness of cluster with separated values such as profit or performance or sustainability etc. Recent publications in foreign literature offer a variety of ways and methods to assess performance and efficiency of the cluster. However, many of them are evaluated in only one cluster parameter. Literature Review The origin of clusters. The current state of research regarding the cluster concept has evolved based on the studies conducted on agglomeration of firms. The first studies in this field started with four empirical observations (Marshall, 1890; Krugman, 1991; Malmberg, Solvell Zander, 1996): most part of the world, national economic and industrial areas are concentrated in very few regions. In these regions investors, universities, government or any other stakeholders of companies are operating. These companies have a longer life and effectiveness than isolated one due to the concentration of resources in this area. The later studies conducted by Porter (1990) and Krugman (1991) highlighted and added new dimensions to Marshalls observations. Despite criticisms regarding the generality of the approach, the widely accepted descriptions regarding clusters are: Geographic concentrations of interconnected companies and Institutions in the particular field (Porter, 1998, p. 45). Clusters a re not seen as fixed flows of goods and services, but rather as dynamic arrangements based on knowledge creation, increasing returns and innovation in a broad sense (Krugman, 1991). Porter (2000) redefines the cluster concept in a new analysis, concentrating on the type of relations that exists between cluster members à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢a geographically proximate group of inter connected companies and associated institutions in a particular field, linked by commonalities and complementaritiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬- (Porter, 2000), and defining its boundaries that can à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢range from a single city or state to a country or even a group of neighbouring countries (Porter, 2000). Modern clusters. Now there is a cluster concept (Porter, 2007) that says that companies gain more competiveness and therefore effectiveness inside the cluster. It also claims that firms in the cluster have a longer life than other isolated companies. There is competition within the cluster. This competition can be among cluster members in an advanced way in the international market. It is worth mentioning that reducing competition is the most important goal among members of the cluster. The idea of reducing competition means ensuring agencies to cooperate more clusters to have an easy access to commercial inputs. Reaching the above goals in cluster facilitates outer-cluster competition and also business and enterprise firms can make the cluster ready for international competition (Kim, 2002). Nowadays there are two problems concerning clusters: economic integration and cluster effectiveness. Economic integration of clusters should be supported by the government with laws (Litzel, 2009), while clusters should consider the intensive intra-regional relationship between its elements (businesses, suppliers, institutions etc.). A cluster model. In order to understand the cluster model from the viewpoint of relations between firms, researchers have defined different models that take into account supplier chains relations, directly based on specific characteristics of urban areas, and clusters which define a typology (Malmberg, Solvell, Zander, 1996) that describes four different agglomerations, which highlights the conceptual differences between the clusters and the other three models.   Based on the role of different cluster members and the interaction between them, Markusen (1996) has defined four models of clusters. Markusen compares its models of modern clusters with the Marshal one, in which the cluster is rather comprising small firms that collaborate with each other, are in direct competition or in a supplier-producer relation. In a hub-and-spoke cluster, there are few dominant firms that represent the core of the cluster and are surrounded by numerous small firms that are linked directly to t hem. In a satellite platform cluster, a group of branch facilities of externally based multi-plant firms (Markusen, 1996) are located in a particular geographic region in order to benefit from governmental facilities or low costs with supplies and workforce. The last category, the state centered (He Fallah, 2011) or state anchored cluster (Markusen, 1996) is defined around a public, governmental or non-profit organization that dominates the region and the economic relation between cluster members. In short, the industrial cluster literature highlights the importance of cluster governance operating horizontally between cluster firms and institutions in local contexts, be it learning and innovation for economic upgrading or implementing CSR measures for social upgrading. This horizontal governance can be contrasted with the vertical governance in GVCs that links global lead firms to both first-tier and local suppliers in international production networks (see below). Cluster firms in developing economies often find themselves confronted by conflicting demands from global buyers, which seek lower labor costs while simultaneously requiring suppliers to comply with higher quality or social standards that would incur additional expenditures (Barrientos Smith 2007; Lund-Thomsen Pillay 2012). The fear of global buyers being foot-loose can keep cluster actors from making sustained investments in infrastructure or workforce development, thereby hindering local joint action. Such anxie ty has grown in the face of global economic recessions (Ruwanpura Wrigley 2011). Industrial clusters. A number of studies have been conducted to show the investment criteria for choosing the industrial clusters in decision-making, which can be separated into several strands. A main group of studies presents that firms will select investment location depending on the development of an innovation system or a technological system in a region (Braunerhjelm et al., 2000, Malerba, 2002, Cooke, 2002, Yeh Chang, 2003, Fleming and Sorenson, 2003, Chang and Shih, 2004, Bell, 2005, Asheim Coenen, 2005). It is reasonable to expect that industrial clusters will emerge from the location where innovation opportunity is available and accessible, as in the link between firms clustering and their probability to innovate (Baptista and Swann, 1998). These building blocks in the innovation system research institution, infrastructure, innovation network, and technology transfer mechanism, will affect the competitiveness of the industrial cluster. Network externality (Dayasindhu, 200 2) and market proximity (Krugman, 1995, Cook et al., 2001) are sometimes the critical criteria when creating a new start-up in an industrial cluster. Innovational clusters. Innovation through industrial clusters can be defined as a way to increase the competitiveness of small and medium enterprises by reaping the benefits generated by the local structures and synergies via cooperative relationship (Idrissia, Amaraa and Landrya, 2012). The clusters provide alliances, which among other things promote flexibility in terms of production volume and variety, reductions in investment costs, reduction in transaction costs and increase in operational efficiency, increased bargaining power, and the development of technology innovation processes (Rabellotti, 1999; Solvell, Ketels and Lindqvist, 2008; Bas, Amoros and Kunc, 2008). The synergy of industrial clusters is also recognized as a relationship network including companies in the same industry sector and that offer them the possibility to achieve innovation and improve product and process development. According to Kuei-Hsien, Miles and Ghung-Shing (2008), network relationships can differ entiate the value of the productive chain when the partners are engaged in activities of common interests allowing the improvement of pro-active actions in the final product or service, which creates a stimulating environment for the innovation process. Engel and del-Palacio (2009) extended Porters (year) definition of industrial agglomeration to delineate a Global Cluster of Innovation Framework that describes business clusters defined not primarily by industry specialization but by the stage of development and innovation of the clusters constituents. While industry concentrations do exist, they are not definitive. It is rather the nature and the behavior of the components that is distinctive-the rapid emergence of new firms commercializing new technologies, creating new markets, and addressing global markets. Methodology The purpose of my research is to estimate the economic effectiveness of clusters performance. Therefore, the main methods of evaluating cluster effectiveness would be economic methods of evaluating project effectiveness. These methods allow seeing the economic feasibility of investment and detecting one of the most financially advantageous of clusters. It is accepted to divide methods of evaluating to dynamic, those that take into account the time factor, and static: accounts. The first group to overview is static methods. The rate of profit is the ratio of the average annual income to total investment costs (Rutherford, 2002). This method can be used to compare several alternatives to capital investment. The most profitable cluster will be considered as one if its rate of profit is not less than the rate of return alternative. The second method is method of determining the payback period. Payback period is a period of time through which the full return on investment due to income from the project (Rutherford, 2002). The payback period of a given cluster is an important determinant of whether to undertake the position or project, as longer payback periods are typically not desirable for investment positions. The next group is dynamic methods. The first is method of net present value (NVP). This method compares the investment volume of the cluster with a total sum of the discounted net cash flows generated during the period of the intended investment. NPV shows if used in the calculation of the rate of return reach R (where R is Interest rate) of the investment within the project life cycle. It should be noted that disadvantages of this method is impossibility to assess which of the alternative cluster are better with great NPV and a long payback period, or a lower NPV, but faster payback. The method of internal rate of return (IRR) This method shows the rate at which the present value of the net revenue from the investment of the project is equal to the present value of the investment and the value of net present value: zero. The disadvantage of this method is that the IRR analysis is not suitable for ordinary investment flows. Then all quantitive and qualitive should be summerised to get number that actually describes effectiveness of each cluster. Each number describes one cluster, so there will be 5 numbers for 5 clusters. The method that will be used to summerise all the criteria is analytic hierarchy process developed by Saaty (2008). This method helps to determine the root of any problem through a hierarchical view of the elements. The main idea of the method is to split the problem into smaller elements, the next step they are compared in pairs. Then the next level is estimated by stating priorities and values each criteria. The output is a relative degree of interaction of the elements in the hierarchy. Overall, these are the main methods that will be used in my study. All of them are quantitative methods. That means that it requires quantifiable data involving numerical and statistical explanations. That is why firstly there will be data collected and analysed from financial and performance monthly reports. Statistica or MS Excel will be used to proceed the data and define the main financial and performance values and then count PP, NVP, IRR that mentioned above. There is no particular soft to build the analytic hierarchy process, so MS Excel is an appropriate option. Anticipated Results By the end of this project there will be five values that fully describe the effectiveness of each (of five) cluster. According to these values, it is possible to choose the most effective one. Therefore, it is very useful tool for investors that can easily define the cluster to invest. Companies also can define their weak sides and where they should improve performance, as priority system is used in the hierarchy analytical method. As it was mentioned before, there is no union system to identify the overall cluster effectiveness. This project will be an example of another working tool for measuring the most effective cluster. Moreover, after finishing project there will be gaps and mistakes revealed (if there any). And then recommendations will be given considering these gaps and how to fix them or improve it. Conclusion The purpose of this review was to view trends in evaluating the economic effectiveness of clusters performance within the past five years and see the rapid improvement in innovation clusters. It is clear from the research that creating and integrating clusters and cluster policy is widely practiced in todays economy. That is why there are plenty of methods of estimating cluster effectiveness such as static and dynamic methods of effectiveness analysis. These methods will be analyzed to find out the one that can fully describe the effectiveness. In this research the most appropriate method will be found and reviewed on the consequences of concepts for economic and industrial policy, as today clusters meet some challenges for its proper functioning and development. References Baptista, R., Swann, P. (1998). Do firms in clusters innovate more?. Research policy, 27(5), 525-540. Krugman, P. (1991). History and industry location: The case of the manufacturing belt. The American Economic Review, 81(2), 80-83. Kuei-Hsien, N., Miles, G., Chung-Shing, L. (2008). Strategic development of network clusters. Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal, 18(3), 176-81. Litzel, N., Mà ¶ller, J. (2009). Industrial clusters and economic integration: theoretic concepts and an application to the European Metropolitan Region Nuremberg, 44-47. Malmberg, A., Sà ¶lvell, ÃÆ'-., Zander, I. (1996). Spatial clustering, local accumulation of knowledge and firm competitiveness. Geografiska Annaler. Series B. Human Geography, 85-97. Marshall, A. (1890). Principles of economics: An introductory volume (Eighth Edition). London: Macmillan. Ortega-Colomer, F. J., Molina-Morales, F. X., Fernà ¡ndez de Lucio, I. (2016). Discussing the Concepts of Cluster and Industrial District. Journal of Technology Management Innovation, 11(2), 139-147. Porter, M. E. (2000). Location, competition, and economic development: Local clusters in a global economy. Economic Development Quarterly, 14(1), 15-34. Porter, M. (2007). Clusters and economic policy: Aligning public policy with the new economics of competition. Cambridge: Harvard Business School, 2. Rutherford D. (2002). In Routledge Dictionary of Economics (2d ed.). London, New York: Routledge. Ruwanpura, K. N., Wrigley, N. (2011). The costs of compliance? Views of Sri Lankan apparel manufacturers in times of global economic crisis. Journal of Economic Geography, 11(6), 1031-1049. Saaty, T. L. (2008). Decision making with the analytic hierarchy process. International journal of services sciences, 1(1), 83-98.